The Ṛgveda is believed to originate from the early 3rd millennium BCE., with some hymns possibly tracing back to the late 4th millennium BCE.
Its compilation likely ended around 1500 B.C., not in 1500 BCE as commonly believed, just as the Indus Valley civilization was fading and Mesopotamia was undergoing a time of uncertainty and turmoil (Levitt 2003: 356b).
Here in this thread, a commonality between Sumerian and Bhartiy text.
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The argument links an Indo-European view with the Vedic origin of the god Indra's name from the Sanskrit "indh-" meaning "to kindle." However, this doesn’t explain all of Indra's traits, which resemble those of the Sumerian god Enlil.
Both Indra and Enlil lead their pantheons, surpass higher moral gods, separate heaven from earth, and are storm gods in both literal and figurative senses. Indra's defeat of Aryan enemies parallels Enlil's conquests.
In Vedic and 3rd millennium B.C. Sumerian traditions, major natural forces were personified. Both have chief gods of air and storm—Indra for the Vedic and Enlil for the Sumerian—showing the significance of rain and storms in their cultures (Dandekar 1958: 13, Jacobsen 1949: 150). This connection is clear.
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Enki is often seen as cunning and crafty, much like rivers that skillfully navigate around obstacles. Víṣṇu’s three steps may parallel Enki’s journey through the civilized world and his establishment of world order and earth’s fertility, as depicted in "Enki and the World Order" (Kramer 1963: 171-174). The name Nārāyaṇá, explained by the Mānavadharmaśāstra 1.10 as 'moving in the waters' (with nāra meaning 'waters'), typically refers to Víṣṇu, although in this context it refers to Brahmā.
Víṣṇu is associated with Garuḍá, the sun-bird, while Enki is linked to Imdugud, an eagle-like thunderbird. It is important to note that the Ṛgveda provides limited information about Víṣṇu, as he is incidental to its primary purpose.
Image representational, generated using AI.
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An interesting point is that Índra is often depicted as a bull, though sometimes as a calf (Winternitz 1927). In this context, the cows (or waters) are his mother, while Vṛtrá, usually depicted as a serpent but described as a bull, is his father. According to RV 4.18.12, Índra killed his father to obtain sóma. This patricide mirrors tales from Enuma Elish and Zeus slaying Cronus in Greek mythology. Índra’s birth is often considered mysterious in the Ṛgveda (Keith 1925). This myth might even justify bullfighting.
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Ancient Mesopotamia and Vedic India both saw the divine and human worlds as reflections of each other, though details varied. Unlike Mesopotamia, Vedic India divided the universe into 'real' (sát) and 'unreal' (ásat), with the latter being the realm of troubling ásuras. Mesopotamian society mirrored its political structure, whereas Vedic India paralleled societal divisions with the cosmic man (RV 10.90).
Both cultures deified aspects of nature, evolving from natural forces to more anthropomorphic gods. The chief gods, Índra in Vedic India and Enlil in Sumeria, were both storm and air deities, reflecting the importance of rain and storms in their respective regions.
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